The Pythagorean spherical concept offers a simple surface which is mathematically easy to deal with. Many astronomical and navigational computations use it as a surface representing the earth. While the sphere is a close approximation of the true figure of the earth and satisfactory for many purposes, to the geodesists interested in the measurement of long distances-spanning continents and oceans-a more exact figure is necessary. The idea of flat earth, however, is still acceptable for surveys of small areas. Plane-table surveys are made for relatively small areas and no account is taken of the curvature of the earth. A survey of a city would likely be computed as though the earth were a plane surface the size of the city. For such small areas, exact positions can be determined relative to each other without considering the size and shape of the total earth.
Since the earth is in fact flattened slightly at the poles and bulges somewhat at the equator, the geometrical figure used in geodesy to most nearly approximate the shape of the earth is an ellipsoid of revolution. The ellipsoid of revolution is the figure which would be obtained by rotating an ellipse about its shorter axis. Figure 3.
FIGURE 3 ELEMENTS OF AN ELLIPSE
An ellipsoid of revolution is uniquely defined by specifying two dimensions. Geodesists, by convention, use the semimajor axis and flattening. The size is represented by the radius at the equator-the semimajor axis-and designated by the letter, a. The shape of the ellipsoid is given by the flattening, f, which indicates how closely an ellipsoid approaches a spherical shape. The difference between the ellipsoid of revolution representing the earth and a sphere is very small. Figure 4.
FIGURE 4 THE EARTH'S FLATTENING
The ellipsoids listed below have had utility in geodetic work and many are still in use. The older ellipsoids are named for the individual who derived them and the year of development is given. In 1887 the English mathematician Col Alexander Ross Clarke RE CB FRS was awarded the Gold Medal of the Royal Society for his work in determining the figure of the Earth. The international ellipsoid was developed by Hayford in 1910 and adopted by the International Union of Geodesy and Geophysics (IUGG) which recommended it for international use.
At the 1967 meeting of the IUGG held in Lucerne, Switzerland, the ellipsoid called GRS-67 in the listing was recommended for adoption. The new ellipsoid was not recommended to replace the International Ellipsoid (1924), but was advocated for use where a greater degree of accuracy is required. It became a part of the Geodetic Reference System 1967 which was approved and adopted at the 1971 meeting of the IUGG held in Moscow. It is used in Australia for the Australian Geodetic Datum and in South America for the South American Datum 1969.
The ellipsoid called GRS-80 (Geodetic Reference System 1980) was approved and adopted at the 1979 meeting of the IUGG held in Canberra, Australia. The ellipsoids used to define WGS 66 and WGS 72 are discussed in Chapter VIII.
The possibility that the earth's equator is an ellipse rather than a circle and therefore that the ellipsoid is triaxial has been a matter of scientific controversy for many years. Modern technological developments have furnished new and rapid methods for data collection and since the launching of the first Russian sputnik, orbital data has been used to investigate the theory of ellipticity.
A second theory, more complicated than triaxiality, proposed that satellite orbital variations indicate additional flattening at the south pole accompanied by a bulge of the same degree at the north pole. It is also contended that the northern middle latitudes were slightly flattened and the southern middle latitudes bulged in a similar amount. This concept suggested a slight pearshaped earth and was the subject of much public discussion. Modern geodesy tends to retain the ellipsoid of revolution and treat triaxiality and pear shape as a part of the geoid separation (to be discussed later).
It was stated earlier that measurements are made on the apparent or topographic surface of the earth and it has just been explained that computations are performed on an ellipsoid. One other surface is involved in geodetic measurement-the geoid. In geodetic surveying, the computation of the geodetic coordinates of points is performed on an ellipsoid which closely approximates the size and shape of the earth in the area of the survey. The actual measurements made on the surface of the earth with certain instruments are referred to the geoid, as explained below. The ellipsoid is a mathematically defined regular surface with specific dimensions. The geoid, on the other hand, coincides with that surface to which the oceans would conform over the entire earth if free to adjust to the combined effect of the earth's mass attraction and the centrifugal force of the earth's rotation. As a result of the uneven distribution of the earth's mass, the geoidal surface is irregular and, since the ellipsoid is a regular surface, the two will not coincide. The separations are referred to as geoid undulations, geoid heights, or geoid separations.
The geoid is a surface along which the gravity potential is everywhere equal and to which the direction of gravity is always perpendicular. The later is particularly significant because optical instruments containing leveling devices are commonly used to make geodetic measurements. When properly adjusted, the vertical axis of the instrument coincides with the direction of gravity and is, therefore, perpendicular to the geoid. The angle between the plumb line which is perpendicular to the geoid (sometimes called "the vertical") and the perpendicular to the ellipsoid (sometimes called "the normal") is defined as the deflection of the vertical. Figure 5 shows the north-south component of the deflection of the vertical.
FIGURE 5 DEFLECTION OF THE VERTICALEllipsoid of Revolution
Australia
NAME EQUATORIAL RADIUS FLATTENING WHERE USED
Krassowsky (1940) 6,378,245m 1/298.3 Russia
International (1924) 6,378,388 1/297 Europe
Clarke (1880) 6,378,249 1/293.46 France, Africa
Clarke (1866) 6,378,206 1/294.98 North America
Bessel (1841) 6,377,397 1/299.15 Japan
Airy (1830) 6,377,563 1/299.32 Great Britain
Everest (1830) 6,377,276 1/300.80 India
WGS 66 (1966) 6,378,145 1/298.25 USA/DoD
GRS 67 (1967) 6,378,160 1/298.25 Australia
South America
WGS 72 (1972) 6,378,135 1/298.26 USA/DoD
GRS 80 (1979) 6,378,137 1/298.26
Geoid