(This section will briefly survey the role of women in Judaism during its formative years, in the time period of the Mishnah (up to 200 CE) and the time period of the Talmud (up to 600 CE).)
See also Old Testament views on women.
(This section will briefly survey the role of women in Judaism from the post-Talmudic era up until The Enlightenment.)
Both the Tanakh and the Talmud allow polygamy; however the Torah's stories imply that monogamy is the preferred and ideal state; the Talmud itself teaches that monogamy is the ideal that all people should follow. In most Jewish communities, polygamy has not existed in any significant form for thousands of years. In the 10th century C.E., Rabbi Gershom of Germany issued a rabbinic decree banning polygamy, and his ruling has been accepted by all Jewish communities. (The isolated Yemenite Jewish community continued to practice polygamy into the 1950s.) Rabbi Gershom noted that, while polygamy exists in the Bible, every instance thereof leads to unhappiness and suffering: Abraham's wives Sarah and Hagar hate each other; Jacob's second wife Leah in unloved and miserable, and her sons grow to hate her sister Rachel's son, Joseph. He also concluded that legal polygamy constituted chilul Hashem -- it created a negative image of Jews in the eyes of non-Jews.
Even before Gershom's ban, the Talmudic precept "dina de'malkhuta dina" -- "the law of the state is the (Jewish) law" -- had outright prevented polygamy for all Jews living in countries where civil law banned it. In those cases when it was not prevented, it was still remarkably rare. Each of the rabbis of the Talmud -- whose written redaction spanned from before the Common Era to the 5th century C.E. -- was married to exactly one woman.
Rabbi Joseph Telushkin notes that, had God seen polygamy as the ideal, He would have created "Adam, Eve, and Joan."
(This section will briefly survey the role of women in Judaism from The Enlightenment until today.)
In the late 18th century Europe, and then the rest of the world, was swept by a group of intellectual, social and political movements that taken together were referred to as the Enlightenment. These movements promoted scientific thinking, freethought, and allowed people to question previously unshaken religious dogmas. Judaism developed several responses to this unprecedented phenomenon. Initially, the European Jewish community began to develop into two separate worldviews; one of which saw the enlightenment as positive, and one of which saw it as negative. The enlightenment meant equality and freedom for many Jews in many countries, so it was felt that it should be warmly welcome. Scientific study of religious texts would allow Jews to study the history of Judaism, and one could discover how it had developed over time.
In response to these issues, Jews favouring the enlightenment developed into a community known as Reform Judaism, and Jews opposed to the enlightenment developed into a set of loosely linked communities known as Orthodox Judaism. A third school of thought developed which held that Jewish law was not static, but should develop in response to changing conditions. This approach gave birth to the communities now known as Masorti Judaism, Conservative Judaism, and Traditional Judaism.
Each of these movements has developed their own response to feminism and the role of women in the modern world.
Orthodox Judaism views men and women as having different but complementary roles, and thus different obligations. This is similar to the traditional interpretation of some other religions, for instance Islam. In the area of education, women were traditionally exempted - and often banned - from any study beyond a basic understanding of the Torah, and the rules necessary in running a Jewish household. Women were discouraged from learning Talmud and other advanced Jewish texts. Women are exempt from having to follow most of the set daily prayer services, and most other positive time bound mitzvot (commandments), such as wearing tefillin. (There are a number of notable exceptions). As such, the halakha (traditional law codes) specify that women are not eligible to be counted in a minyan, as a minyan is a quorum of those who are obligated.
Many people view these elements of Orthodox Judaism as sexist.
Orthodox Jewish men generally do not touch, gaze at, or sit next to women other than their wives or relatives, for reasons of modesty. They also do not touch their wife while she is menstruating, for a short period after menstruating, and after the birth of a child. This also includes indirect contact; for instance a plate would not be passed on directly, but first put down on a table so that both do not hold on to the object at the same time. They also include additional restrictions against, for example, flirting.
One of the first major breaks with the traditional role of women came from within the Orthodox movement, by the Chofetz Chaim, Rabbi Yisroel Meir HaKohen (1838-1933). He overruled the traditional prohibitions against advanced training of women on the basis that times have changed, and that in the modern world it is now important for women to have an advanced Jewish education. Soon after this, the Bais Yaakov (House of Jacob) network of Orthodox Torah schools for women was built.
Recently, a few leaders in the Modern Orthodox community have set up schools that bring advanced Jewish studies to women, including Stern College at Yeshiva University, and the Drisha Institute (both in New York City). At recent conferences on Feminism and Orthodox Judaism, a small but growing number of Orthodox Jews have proposed that it may acceptable for the Orthodox movement to ordain women as rabbis. In a growing number of places, Orthodox women have established their own tefila (prayer) groups. It should be noted that this phenomenon is still an anomaly within Orthodox Judaism. Even at the flagship institution of Modern Orthodoxy, Yeshiva University, some Talmud teachers publicly denounced and forbade the concept of women praying together in a women's tefila group. Most Orthodox Jews reject the idea of ordaining women as rabbis, as they feel that this is an unacceptable deviation from tradition.
At recent conferences on Feminism and Orthodox Judaism, a small but growing group of liberal Modern Orthodox Jewish activists have proposed that it may be acceptable for women to become Orthodox rabbis. Until recently, this was considered an impossible goal. In recent years a small but growing number of Modern Orthodox rabbis have opined that women can take on many of the roles of a rabbi, and that some form of rabbinical-like ordination for women is possible. A few rabbi-like positions for Orthodox women have been created, but none grant the title "rabbi"; the Orthodox community is still ambivalent on this issue.
The past 30 years have seen a revolution in how Conservative Judaism views women. Conservative Judaism believes in the equality of men and women, and, where necessary, has produced responsa and innovative rituals to address religious needs in this area. The Committee on Jewish Law and Standards (CJLS) of the Rabbinical Assembly has approved a number of responsa on this topic. Responsa have been accepted that justify women's active participation in synagogue life:
(To be written.)
On Women and Judaism: A View from Tradition Blu Greenberg, Jewish Publication Society
Rereading the Rabbis: A Woman's Voice Judith Hauptman, Westview Press, 1998
Women Who Would Be Rabbis Pamela S. Nadell, 1999 Beacon PressThe role of women in classical Judaism
The role of women in medieval Judaism
Women in Modern Judaism today
Women in Orthodox Judaism
Rules of modesty
Changes in the Orthodox position
The role of women in Conservative Judaism
A rabbi may or may not decide to adopt particular rulings for the congregation; thus, some Conservative congregations will be more or less egalitarian than others. However, there are other areas where legal differences remain between men and women, including: The role of women in Reform and Reconstructionist Judaism
External links
References
Women and Jewish Law: An Exploration of Women's Issue's in Halakhic Sources, Rachel Biale, Shocken Books, 1984